Neotropical Treefrog, Boana xerophylla (Family Hylidae)

The AMNH Amphibians of the World summarize the name change of Hypsiboas crepitans to Boana xerophyla in the following explanation:

Removed from the synonymy of Hypsiboas crepitans by Orrico, Nunes, Mattedi, Fouquet, Lemos, Rivera-Correa, Lyra, Loebmann, Pimenta, Caramaschi, Rodrigues, and Haddad, 2017, Salamandra, 53: 107, where it had been placed by Guibé, 1950 "1948", Cat. Types Amph. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat.: 24. See account (as Hyla fuentei) for Surinam population by Ouboter and Jairam, 2012, Amph. Suriname: 148-150. In the Hyla boans group of Duellman, 2001, Hylid Frogs Middle Am., Ed. 2: 859 (who also noted that the previous record for this species in Honduras was erroneous). This taxon (as Hyla crepitans) considered to be a composite of several species; see Kluge, 1979, Occas. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 688: 1–24 (see Hyla pugnax). Kenny, 1969, Stud. Fauna Curaçao and other Caribb. Is., 29: 38-40, and Murphy, 1997, Amph. Rept. Trinidad Tobago: 66–67, provided accounts for the Trinidad and Tobago populations (as Hyla crepitans). Lescure and Marty, 2000, Collect. Patrimoines Nat., Paris, 45: 118–119, provided a brief account (as Hyla crepitans) and photo (although this photo is of an undescribed cryptic rainforest species according to Barrio-Amorós, personal commun.). Lynch and Suárez-Mayorga, 2001, Caldasia, 23: 491–507, discussed the Colombian range of the species (as Hyla crepitans) and suggested that the nominal species is a composite of cryptic species, mirrored by comments by Barrio-Amorós, 1999 "1998", Acta Biol. Venezuelica, 18: 29. See comment regarding geographic differentiation (as Hyla crepitans) in Venezuela by Gorzula and Señaris, 1999 "1998", Scient. Guaianae, 8: 29-30. In the Hypsiboas faber group of Faivovich, Haddad, Garcia, Frost, Campbell, and Wheeler, 2005, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 294: 87. Martins, Silva, and Giaretta, 2009, Salamandra, 45: 106–109, suggested on the basis of call structure that the two allopatric populations were probably distinct species; these were formally diagnosed (as Hypsiboas xerophylla and Hypsiboas crepitans) and revised by Orrico, Nunes, Mattedi, Fouquet, Lemos, Rivera-Correa, Lyra, Loebmann, Pimenta, Caramaschi, Rodrigues, and Haddad, 2017, Salamandra, 53: 99–113. See account for Surinam population (as Hypsiboas fuentei and Hypsiboas crepitans) by Ouboter and Jairam, 2012, Amph. Suriname: 140–143. See Cole, Townsend, Reynolds, MacCulloch, and Lathrop, 2013, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 125: 404, for brief account (as Hypsiboas crepitans) and records for Guyana. Köhler, 2011, Amph. Cent. Am.: 232–235, provided a brief summary of natural history for the species of Hypsiboas in Central America and provided a range map and photograph for this species, as Hypsiboas crepitans. Vanzolini and Myers, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 395: 72, doubted that the populations in Panama and Colombia (now Hypsiboas xerophylla) are conspecific with the Brazilian species (now Hypsiboas crepitans). Guarnizo, Paz, Muñoz-Ortiz, Flechas, Méndez-Narváez, and Crawford, 2016, PLoS One, 10(5: e0127312): 1–20, suggested on the basis of molecular evidence that two species may exist in Colombia (as Hypsiboas crepitans). 

Hyla xerophylla Duméril and Bibron, 1841, Erp. Gen., 8:549. Holotype: MNHNP 652.Type locality: "Cayenne", French Guiana.

Hyla levaillantii Duméril and Bibron, 1841, Erp. Gen., 8:550. Holotype: MNHNP 764. Type locality: "Surinam".

Hyla doumercii Duméril and Bibron, 1841, Erp. Gen., 8: 551. Holotype: MNHNP 766. Type locality: "Surinam".
Hypsiboas (Hypsipsophus) xerophyllum — Fitzinger, 1843, Syst. Rept.:30.

Hypsiboas levaillantii — Cope, 1867, J. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Ser. 2, 6:200.

Hypsiboas doumericii — Cope, 1867, J. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Ser. 2, 6:200.

Hypsiboas xerophyllum — Cope, 1867, J. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Ser. 2, 6:200.

Hypsiboas indris Cope, 1867, J. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Ser. 2, 6: 201. Holotype: KM 1009, according to Duellman, 1977, Das Tierreich, 95: 49. Type locality: "Surinam".

Hyla indris — Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal. Coll. Brit. Mus., Ed. 2: 353.

Hyla fuentei Goin and Goin, 1968, Copeia, 1968: 581. Holotype: CM 44218, by original designation. Type locality: "Suriname, Suriname District. Powakka".

Hyla fuentei — Faivovich, Haddad, Garcia, Frost, Campbell, and Wheeler, 2005, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 294: 89.

Hypsiboas xerophylla — Orrico, Nunes, Mattedi, Fouquet, Lemos, Rivera-Correa, Lyra, Loebmann, Pimenta, Caramaschi, Rodrigues, and Haddad, 2017, Salamandra, 53: 99.

Boana fuentei — Dubois, 2017, Bionomina, 11: 28.

Boana xerophylla — Dubois, 2017, Bionomina, 11: 28. 

Other Common Names: The Rattle-voice Treefrog, Gladiator Frog, Flying Frog, Emerald Eye Treefrog.

Males reach 61 mm, females 73 mm.

A widespread species with a disjunctive distribution. One population ranges from Panama to northern Colombia, Venezuela and into northern Brazil, occurs on both Trinidad and Tobago and throughout the Guianas. The other population is in Brazil's Atlantic Forest.

The Neotropical Treefrog uses a variety of habitats, ranging from humid tropical forests, semi- arid environments, grasslands, pastures and lower montane forests. It is an arboreal and nocturnal using trees, on shrubs and other vegetation near water. The species breeds in temporary pools or along permanent streams early in the rainy season. During the day this frog can be found in bushes, sitting on leaves, it is bright white in color. Some populations lay eggs in rafts that float on the water, other seem to have basins in gravel that forms nests. While this is considered a common widespread frog, in reality, it is a complex of cryptic species in need of systematic revision.

Males engage in combat for calling stations and are sometimes referred to as gladiator frogs. Males may call from the edge of the water or while floating on water. They will call after rains but also call less frequently well into the dry season.


Lehtinen, R.M., 2014. Confirmation of nest building in a population of the gladiator frog Hypsiboas crepitans (Anura, Hylidae) from the island of Tobago (West Indies). Herpetology Notes, 7, pp.227-229.

Giant Treefrog, Boana boans (Family Hylidae)

Rana boans Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat., Ed. 10, 1: 213. Type locality: "America".

Rana maxima Laurenti, 1768, Spec. Med. Exhib. Synops. Rept.: 32.

Hyla boans — Daudin, 1800, Hist. Nat. Quad. Ovip., Livr. 1: 11;

Hypsiboas boans — Faivovich, Haddad, Garcia, Frost, Campbell, and Wheeler, 2005, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 294: 89.

Dubois (2017 Bionomina, 11: 17) arrived at the conclusion that Boana was the appropriate generic name for the Trinidad frogs formerly placed in the genus Hypsiboas.

Type locality: "America.” Distribution. Eastern Panama to Trinidad, upper Orinoco, Lower Amazon Basin, the Magdalena Basins, Guianas, and Pacific lowlands of Colombia and adjacent Ecuador in South America.

T&T's largest treefrog. Males slightly larger than females, males 101-128 mm, females 91-123 mm. Commonly found in gallery forests along streams, often associated with stands of bamboo and other tall grasses. Males may construct nests in stream bed during dry season, and defend egg laying sites from other males. The dorsum is brown in males and orange-brown in females. The ventral surface is a uniform cream to white in both sexes. Transverse darker bars occur on the sides of the body and legs. The membrane between the fingers is complete to the start of the terminal segment of the finger. The iris is orange brown.

A highly arboreal frog that is nocturnal, reproduction occurs at the end of the dry season. Clutches of 1300-3000 eggs are deposited as a gelatinous film on the water surface in nest basins constructed by the male, nest basins usually streamside and flooded with rains. Male combat occurs over nesting sites. Males use an exposed bones on their thumb to fight. The tadpoles are light brown and on sand or gravel bottom streams. Fish seem to avoid eating the tadpoles.

Barrio Amorós, C.L. 2004. Amphibians of Venezuela Systematic List, Distribution and References, An Update. Review of Ecology in Latin America 9(3): 1-48.

Barrio, C. 1998. Sistemática y Biogeografía de los Anfibios (Amphibia) de Venezuela.Acta Biologica Venezuelica: 1-93.

Barrio, C.L. 1999. Geographic Distribution: Hyla boans. Herpetological Review: 230.

Barrio, C.L. 2001. Geographic Distribution: Hyla boans. Herpetological Review: 113-114.

Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. 2003. La herpetofauna de la Estación de Biodiversidad Tiputini, Provincia de Orellana, Amazonia Ecuador. Mem. 1er Congreso Ecuatatoriano de Ecologia and Ambeinte, Univ. San Francisco de Quito, Quito, Ecuador.

Dubois, A. 2017. The nomenclatural status of Hysaplesia, Hylaplesia, Dendrobates and related nomina (Amphibia, Anura), with general comments on zoological nomenclature and its governance, as well as on taxonomic databases and websites. Bionomina 11: 1–48.

Duellman, W.E. 1971. The nomenclatural status of the names Hyla boans (Linnaeus) andHyla maxima (Laurenti) (Anura: Hylidae). Herpetologica: 397-405.

Duellman, W.E. 1997. Amphibians of La Escalera region, Southeastern Venezuela: Taxonomy, Ecology, and Biogeography. Scientific papers of the Natural History Museum of the University of Kansas: 1-52.

Duellman, W.E. 2001. The Hylid Frogs of Middle America. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, Ithaca, New York, USA.

Ernst, R., Rödel, M-O. and Arjoon, D. 2005. On the cutting edge – The anuran fauna of the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve, Central Guyana. Salamandra 41(4): 179-194.

Faivovich, J., Haddad, C.F.B., Garcia, P.C.O., Frost, D.R., Campbell, J.A. and Wheeler, W.C. 2005. Systematic review of the frog family Hylidae, with special reference to Hylinae: Phylogenetic analysis and taxonomic revision. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 294: 1-240.

Gascon, C. 1996. Amphibian litter fauna as river barrier in flooded and non flooded Amazonian rainforest. Biotropica: 136-140.

Hero, J.-M. 1990. An illustrated key to tadpoles occurring in the Central Amazon rainforest, Manaus, Amazonas, Brasil. Amazoniana: 201-262.

Hoogmoed, M.S. 1990. Resurrection of Hyla wavrini Parker (Amphibia: Anura: Hylidae), a gladiator frog from northern South America. Zool. Meded. Leiden: 71-93.

Ibañez, R., Rand, A.S. and Jaramillo, C.A. 1999. Los anfibios del Monumento Natural Barro Colorado, Parque Nacional Soberanía y áreas adyacentes. Mizrachi, E. and Pujol, S.A., Santa Fe de Bogota.

Ibáñez, R., Solís, F., Jaramillo, C. and Rand, S. 2000. An overview of the herpetology of Panama. In: J.D. Johnson, R.G. Webb and O.A. Flores-Villela (eds), Mesoamerican Herpetology: Systematics, Zoogeography and Conservation, pp. 159-170. The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas.

IUCN. 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (ver. 2010.2). Available at:http://www.iucnredlist.org. (Accessed: 29 June 2010).

Kenny, J.S. 1969. The Amphibia of Trinidad. Studies on the Fauna of Curacao and Other Caribbean Islands.

La Marca, E. 1992. Catálogo taxonómico, biogeográfico y bibliográfico de las ranas de Venezuela. Cuadernos Geográficos, Universidad de Los Andes 1: 1-197.

La Marca, E. 1997. Lista actualizada de los anfibios de Venezuela. In: La Marca, E. (ed.),Vertebrados Actuales y Fosiles de Venezuela, pp. 103-120. Museo de Ciencias y Tecnología de Mérida, Mérida.

Lescure, J. 1976. Contribution a l'étude des amphibiens de Guyane francaise. VI. Liste préliminaire des anoures. Bulletin du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, France, 3 serie: 475-524.

Lescure, J. and Marty, C. 2000. Atlas des Amphibiens de Guyane. Patrimoines Naturels, Paris.

Linnaeus, C. 1758. Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Laurentii Salvii, Stockholm.

Lutz, B. 1973. Brazilian species of Hyla. University of Texas Press, Austin.

Lynch, J.D. 2006. The amphibian fauna in the Villavicencio region of Eastern Colombia.Caldasia 28(1): 135-155.

Moreira, G.R., Gordo, M., Martins, M., Galatti, U. and Oda, W.Y. 1997. Relatório Final da Área Temática Herpetofauna. Macrozoneamento Sócio-Econômico-Ecológico do Estado de Rondônia. Planafloro report, pp. 1-57. Planafloro, Porto Velho.

Murphy, J.C. 1997. Amphibians and Reptiles of Trinidad and Tobago. Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida.

Parker, H.W. 1933. A list of the frogs and toads of Trinidad. Tropical Agriculture 10(1): 8-12.

Rodríguez, L.O. and Duellman, W.E. 1994. Guide to the frogs of the Iquitos region, Amazonian Peru. Asocacion de Ecologia y Conservacion, Amazon Center for Environmental Education and Research and Natural History Museum, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.

Ruiz-Carranza, P.M., Ardila-Robayo, M.C. and Lynch, J.D. 1996. Lista actualizada de la fauna de Amphibia de Colombia. Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales 20(77): 365-415.

Souza, M.B. 2003. Diversidade de Anfíbios nas Unidades de Conservação Ambiental: Reservas Extrativista do Alto Juruá (REAJ) e Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor (PNSD), Acre, Brasil. PhD Thesis, Universidade Estadual Paulista, Instituto de Biociências de Rio Claro.

Villa, J., Wilson, L.D. and Johnson, J.D. 1988. Middle American Herpetology. Univ. Missouri Press, Columbia.

Vitt, L.J. and Caldwell, J.P. 1998. Inventário e Ecologia da herpetofauna da Amazônia: Rio Ajanari, Roraima, Brasil. Report Proj. NSF Project DEB-9505518 (not published).

Oriental Glass Frog, Hyalinobatrachium orientale tobagoense (Family Centrolenidae)

Centrolenella orientalis Rivero, 1968, Mem. Soc. Cienc. Nat. La Salle, 28: 308. Type locality: "Cerro Turumiquire, 1.200 m, Estados Sucre-Monagas, Venezuela".

Centrolenella orientalis orientalis — Hardy, 1984, Bull. Maryland Herpetol. Soc., 20: 165.

Centrolenella orientalis tobagoensis Hardy, 1984, Bull. Maryland Herpetol. Soc., 20: 165. Type locality: "along the Roxborough--Partatuvier Road in the vicinity of Bloody Bay, St. John Parish, Tobago". 

Hyalinobatrachium orientale tobagoensis — Murphy, 1997, Amph. Rept. Trinidad Tobago: 61.

Hyalinobatrachium orientale tobagoense — Frost, 2004, Amph. Spec. World, vers. 3.0. 

Found only in streams that drain the Main Ridge of Tobago and the coastal ranges of Venezuela. It is closely associated with fast flowing streams where it lays its eggs on the underside of leaves overhanging the water. When the tadpoles hatch they drop into the water.

Downie et al. (2015) described the tadpole of the Tobago glass frog Hyalinobatrachium orientale tobagoense. Similar to other Hyalinobatrachium species tadpoles described to date, it lives hidden in sand and gravel at the bottom of stream beds. They have relatively long tails and slender lightly pigmented bodies with tiny eyes. They appear to grow very slowly and hindlimb buds were not developed in the sixth week.

Males also call from the underside of leaves (below) and attend the eggs in some cases they may have four or five clutches of eggs on a single leaf, attended by a single male.

Barrio Amorós, C.L. 2004. Amphibians of Venezuela Systematic List, Distribution and References, An Update. Review of Ecology in Latin America 9(3): 1-48.

Cannatella, D.C. and Lamar, W.W. 1986. Synonymy and distribution of Centrolenella orientalis with notes on its life history (Anura: Centrolenidae). Journal of Herpetology: 307-317.

Duellman, W.E. 1977. Liste der rezenten Amphibien und Reptilien: Hylidae, Centrolenidae, Pseudidae. Das Tierreich: 1-225.

Hardy Jr., J.D. 1982. Biogeography of Tobago, West Indies, with special reference to amphibians and reptiles. Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society 18(2): 37-142.

Hardy, Jr, J.D. 1984. A new subspecies of Centrolenella orientalis (Anura: Centrolenidae) from Tobago, West Indies. Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society: 165-173.

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La Marca, E. 1992. Catalogo taxonomico, biogeografico y bibliografico de las ranas de Venezuela. Cuadernos Geograficos, Universidad de Los Andes: 1-197.

La Marca, E. 1995. Crisis de biodiversidad en anfibios de Venezuela: estudio de casos. In: Alonso-Amelot, M.E. (ed.), La Biodiversidad Neotropical y la Amenaza de las Extinciones, pp. 47-69. Universidad de Los Andes, Mérida.

La Marca, E. 1997. Lista actualizada de los anfibios de Venezuela. In: La Marca, E. (ed.),Vertebrados Actuales y Fosiles de Venezuela, pp. 103-120. Museo de Ciencias y Tecnología de Mérida, Mérida.

Lehtinen RM, Georgiadis AP. Observations on parental care in the glass frog Hyalinobatrachium orientale (Anura: Centrolenidae) from Tobago, with comments on its natural history. Phyllomedusa: Journal of Herpetology. 2012 Jun 18;11(1):75-7.

Jowers MJ, Lehtinen RM, Downie RJ, Georgiadis AP, Murphy JC. Molecular phylogenetics of the glass frog Hyalinobatrachium orientale (Anura: Centrolenidae): evidence for Pliocene connections between mainland Venezuela and the island of Tobago. Mitochondrial DNA. 2015 Jul 4;26(4):613-8.

Murphy, J.C. 1997. Amphibians and Reptiles of Trinidad and Tobago. Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida.

Myers, C.W. and Donnelly, M.A. 1997. A tepui herpetofauna on a granitic mountain (Tamacuari) in the borderland between Venezuela and Brazil: report from the Phipps Tapirapecó expedition. American Museum Novitates: 1-71.

Rivero, J.A. 1968. Los centrolénidos de Venezuela (Amphibia, Salientia). Memoria de la Sociedad de Ciencias Naturales La Salle: 301-334.

Rivero, J.A. 1985. Nuevos centrolenidos de Colombia y Venezuela. Brenesia: 335-373.

Ruiz-Carranza, P.M. and Lynch, J.D. 1991. Ranas Centrolenidae de Colombia I. Propuesta de una nueva clasificación genérica. Lozania (Acta Zoológica colombiana): 1-30.

Ruiz-Carranza, P.M., Ardila-Robayo, M.C. and Lynch, J.D. 1996. Lista actualizada de la fauna de Amphibia de Colombia. Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales 20(77): 365-415.

Tungara Frog, Engystomops pustulosus (Family Leptodactyldae)

Above. Foam nest of Engystomops pustulosus.

Paludicola pustulosa Cope, 1864, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 16:180. Type locality. "New Grenada, on the River Truando", Colombia.

Engystomops pustulosus — Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal. Coll. Brit. Mus., Ed. 2: 276.

Eupemphix trinitatis Boulenger, 1889, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 6, 3: 307. Type locality. "Trinidad . . . in the Gardens".

Eupemphix pustulosa trinitatis — Parker, 1933, Trop. Agric., Trinidad, 10: 8-12.

Type locality: New Grenada, on the River Truando, Colombia. It ranges from Mexico to Colombia and Venezuela and is usually an abundant lowland species (although it can be found as high as 900 m ASL) that uses savanna as well as disturbed and natural forest. It occurs in Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, México, Nicaragua, Panamá, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela.

Males reach at least 30 mm, females are slightly larger. The skin is brown-grey and warty, making it likely to be mistaken for a toad. It is often in the vicinity of ponds, including puddles that accumulate in roadside ditches and tire tracks. Males call after dark while they float in the water. Eggs are deposited in foam nests, often under vegetation or debris, in pools. Foam nests prevent egg desiccation and protect the tadpoles. This is one of the most common amphibians in the islands.

Barbour, R.W. 1916. Amphibians and reptiles from Tobago. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 29: 221-224.

Barrio Amorós, C.L. 2004. Amphibians of Venezuela Systematic List, Distribution and References, An Update. Review of Ecology in Latin America 9(3): 1-48.

Cannatella, D.C. and Duellman, W.E. 1984. Leptodactylid frogs of the Physalaemus pustulosus group. Copeia 1984: 902-921.

Duellman, W.E. 1997. Amphibians of La Escalera region, Southeastern Venezuela: Taxonomy, Ecology, and Biogeography. Scientific papers of the Natural History Museum of the University of Kansas: 1-52.

Frost, D.R. 1985. Amphibian Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. Allen Press and the Association of Systematic Collections, Lawrence, Kansas.

Gorzula, S. and Señaris, J.C. 1998. Contribution to the herpetofauna of the Venezuelan Guayana I. A database. Scientiae Guaianae: 1-270.

Hardy Jr., J.D. 1982. Biogeography of Tobago, West Indies, with special reference to amphibians and reptiles. Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society 18(2): 37-142.

Hoogmoed, M.S. and Gorzula, S. 1979. Checklist of the savanna inhabiting frogs of the El Manteco region with notes on their ecology and the description of a new species of tree frog (Hylidae, Anura). Zoologischer Mededelinger Leiden: 183-216.

Ibañez, R., Rand, A.S. and Jaramillo, C.A. 1999. Los anfibios del Monumento Natural Barro Colorado, Parque Nacional Soberanía y áreas adyacentes. Mizrachi, E. and Pujol, S.A., Santa Fe de Bogota.

Ibáñez, R., Solís, F., Jaramillo, C. and Rand, S. 2000. An overview of the herpetology of Panama. In: J.D. Johnson, R.G. Webb and O.A. Flores-Villela (eds), Mesoamerican Herpetology: Systematics, Zoogeography and Conservation, pp. 159-170. The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas.

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Kenny, J.S. 1969. The Amphibia of Trinidad. Studies on the Fauna of Curacao and Other Caribbean Islands.

Köhler, G. 2001. Anfibios y Reptiles de Nicaragua. Herpeton, Offenbach, Germany.

La Marca, E. 1992. Catálogo taxonómico, biogeográfico y bibliográfico de las ranas de Venezuela. Cuadernos Geográficos, Universidad de Los Andes 1: 1-197.

La Marca, E. and Lötters, S. 1997. Monitoring of declines in Venezuelan Atelopus. In: Bohme,W., Bishoff, W. and Ziegler, T. (eds), Herpetologia Bonnensis, pp. 207-213. Society European Herpetology, Bonn.

Lee, J.C. 1996. The Amphibians and Reptiles of the Yucatán Peninsula. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, USA.

Manzanilla, J., Fernandez-Badillo, A., La Marca, E. and Visbal, R. 1995. Fauna del Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, Venezuela. Composición y distribución de los anfibios.Acta Científica Venezolana: 294-302.

McCranie, J.R. and Wilson, L.D. 2002. The Amphibians of Honduras. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, Ithaca, New York, USA.

Mertens, R. 1972. Herpetofauna tobagana. Stuttgarter Beitrage zur Naturkunde aus dem Staatlichen Museum fur Naturkunde in Stuttgart 252: 1-11.

Michael, R. 1985. The túngara frog: A study in sexual selection and communication. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Mole, R.R. and Urich, F.W. 1894. A preliminary list of the reptiles and batrachians of the island of Tobago. Journal of the Trinidad Field Naturalists’ Club: 77-90.

Murphy, J.C. 1997. Amphibians and Reptiles of Trinidad and Tobago. Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida.

Nieto Montes de Oca, A. and Pérez Ramos, E. 1998. Guía de los anfibios y reptiles del estado de Querétaro. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City.

Parker, H.W. 1933. A list of the frogs and toads of Trinidad. Tropical Agriculture 10(1): 8-12.

Rivero, J.A. 1961. Salientia of Venezuela. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology: 1-207.

Ron, S.R., Coloma, L.A. and Cannatella, D.C. 2005. A new, cryptic species ofPhysalaemus (Anura: Leptodactylidae) from western Ecuador with comments on the call structure of the P. pustulosus species group. Herpetologica: 178-198.

Ron, S.R., Santos, J.C. and Cannatella, D.C. 2006. Phylogeny of the túngara frog genusEngystomops (=Physalaemus pustulosus species group; Anura: Leptodactylidae).Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.11.022.

Ruiz-Carranza, P.M., Ardila-Robayo, M.C. and Lynch, J.D. 1996. Lista actualizada de la fauna de Amphibia de Colombia. Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales 20(77): 365-415.

Ryan, M.J., Rand, A.S. and Weigt, L.A. 1996. Allozyme and advertisement call variation in the tungara frog, Physalaemus pustulosus. Evolution: 2435-2453.

Villa, J., Wilson, L.D. and Johnson, J.D. 1988. Middle American Herpetology. Univ. Missouri Press, Columbia.

Wynn, A. and Heyer, W.R. 2001. Do geographically widespread species of tropical amphibians exist? An estimate of genetic relatedness within the neotropical frogLeptodactylus fuscus (Schneider 1799) (Anura Leptodactylidae). Tropical Zoology: 255-285.

Young, B., Sedaghatkish, G., Roca, E. and Fuenmayor, Q. 1999. El Estatus de la Conservación de la Herpetofauna de Panamá: Resumen del Primer Taller Internacional sobre la Herpetofauna de Panamá. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia.

Zina, J. 2006. Communal nests in Physalaemus pustulosus (Amphibia: Leptodactylidae): experimental evidence for female oviposition preferences and protection against desiccation. Amphibia-Reptilia 27: 148-150.

Double-Striped Water Snake, Thamnodynastes ramonriveroi (Family Dipsadidae)

Thamnodynastes ramonriveroi Manzanilla & Sánchez 2005

Size: 600 mm TL. Identification: The only Trinidad snake with 19 rows of smooth scales, light and dark dorsolateral stripes and a venter flecked with brown pigment. Rostral barely visible from above; nasals entire; one preocular; two postoculars; two primary temporals; eight upper labials, with the fourth and fifth entering orbit; eight lower labials with the first four contacting the anterior chin shields; smooth dorsal scales in 19 rows at mid-body, reduce to 17 posteriorly; ventrals 137–153; cloacal plate divided; paired subcaudals 59–75. Distribution: Coastal Suriname through eastern Venezuela (both uplands and the Orinoco Delta) and southwest Trinidad. Habitat: Semi-aquatic, in secondary forest and agricultural areas in southwest Trinidad. Biology: Nocturnal. Diet includes fish and tadpoles.

The following is adapted from Bailey and Thomas (2006)

Thamnodynastes ramonriveroi ranges from near sea level to at least 1750 m on Mt. Turumiquire on the Sucre-Monagas-Anzoategui border in Venezuela. The upland and coastal populations differ somewhat. The only Brazilian specimen, from the alto Rio Catrimany (MNRJ 668), Rio Branco, was long believed to be the only apparent specimen of Thamnodynastes strigatusfrom the north, some 3000 km from the nearest conspecific; but there was no other reason to question its provenance. In fact, Franco and Ferreira (2003) recently cited this specimen and another as evidence for a northern population of T. strigatus. With the discovery of T. ramonriveroi as a valid species, the identity of MNRJ 668 is solved, as it compares perfectly with the type series; however, it’s locality lies 930 km south of Mt. Turumiquire and 650 km from the closest Guiana records. Boos (1984) reported the first known specimen from Trinidad (there are now three existing from that island – see Murphy 1997, Boos 2001); he called it Thamnodynastes strigatus. The only congener sympatric with Thamnodynastes ramonriveroi is T. pallidus, both of which are recorded from Nieuw Nickerie and Paramaribo, Suriname, and from Demerara (Georgetown), Guayana. All localities are in areas of original forest. The species is semi-aquatic. An Elvécia specimen was noted by Netting: “Caught crawling in a small pool. Swam easily and well. Flattened the entire first half of body and when tormented opened mouth very widely; played possum when struck with a light stick” (the flattening behavior is shown in Manzanilla and Sánchez 2005. His field notes for another specimen give the local name as ”mapanare del agua”. A preserved specimen from Guyana had a small cyprinodontid fish in its mouth, and one from Suriname had eaten a metamorphosing tadpole. Three gravid females have been examined: CM 7977, 337 mm SVL, with five embryos, was taken January 13, 1930; RMNH 990, 365mm SVL, contained four embryos; and in AMNH 36119, 348mm SVL, two eggs were observe.

Diagnosis. A northern dwarfed relative of Thamnodynastes strigatus, from which it differs chiefly in its smaller size, lesser development of para-cloacal tubercles in males, a higher modal maxillary tooth count, and in possessing enlarged basal hooks on the hemipenis. Description of a typical specimen. An adult male (CM 7981), collected by M.G. Netting on January 14, 1930, at Elvécia, Sucre State, Venezuela.

A medium-sized, stocky snake with smooth dorsal scales in the formula 19- 19-15, reducing twice by the loss of the fourth lateral row opposite ventrals 69 and 84, respectively; a single scale pit is distinct on most of the scales that have not slipped; ventrals 147; cloacal plate divided; subcaudals 62 plus a terminal spine; supralabials 8- 8, third (very narrowly) to fifth entering the orbit; infralabials 9-9, the anterior five in contact with the genials; one pre and two postoculars on each side; nasal divided below nostril; loreal with its lower margin nearly twice as long as the upper; two temporals contact the postoculars; para-loacal tubercles scarcely evident; TL 492mm; tail 112mm; tail/SVL ratio 22.8%; HL 18.5mm; orbit 3.3mm, projecting to front of nostril; maxillary teeth 16+2G. Nuchal pale stripe about 13 scales long before being interrupted by a series of mid-dorsal pale spots about the size of the eye; ground color slate gray where scales have slipped and brown where they are present; scales between and on either side of pale dorsal spots are edged with black on the anterior part of the body becoming inconspicuous posteriorly; a dark lateral stripe follows the fourth lateral row; the top of the head is gray with darker mottling; the eye to angle of jaw stripe is well developed, meeting the orbit on the postocular suture and continuing anteriorly from orbit to nostril; five pale-centered dark spots on the supralabials, the largest on the fifth, plus a few irregular smaller markings; chin bars and scattered dark spots present on the throat; five rows of dark spots with paler centers on the ventrals with additional pigment between the rows, the outermost pair of which are much the darkest and separated from the dorsal color by a narrow pale line, which is not sharply demarcated. CM 7981 is described in Netting’s field notes as follows: “greenish above with dark blackish spots and light greenish between markings below, iris light brown.”

Bailey J.R, R.A Thomas 2007. A revision of the South American snake genus Thamnodynastes Wagler, 1830 (Serpentes, Colubridae, Tachymenini). II. Three new species from northern South America, with further descriptions of Thamnodynastes gambotensis Pérez-Santos and Moreno and Tha Memoria de la Fundación La Salle de Ciencias Naturales 166: 7-27 [2006]

Cole, CJ,CR Townsend, RP. Reynolds, RD MacCulloch, & A Lathrop 2013. Amphibians and reptiles of Guyana, South America: illustrated keys, annotated species accounts, and a biogeographic synopsis. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 125 (4): 317-578; plates: 580-620

Manzanilla, J. & Sánchez 2005. Una nueva especie de Thamnodynastes (Serpentes: Colubridae) del macizo del Turimiquire, noreste de Venezuela. Memorias de la Fundación La Salle de Ciencias Naturales 161-162: 61-75 [2004]

Natera-Mumaw, M; LF Esqueda-González & M Castelaín-Fernández 2015. Atlas Serpientes de Venezuela Santiago de Chile, Dimacofi Negocios Avanzados S.A., 456 pp.

Rivas, GA.; CR Molina, G N Ugueto, TR. Barros, CL. Barrio-Amorós & PJK Kok 2012. Reptiles of Venezuela: an updated and commented checklist. Zootaxa 3211: 1–64

Ocellated Gecko, Gonatodes ocellatus (Family Sphaerodactylidae)

Cyrtodactylus ocellatus Gray 1831: 51.
Gonatodes ocellatus: Boulenger 1885: 60.

Type locality not given by Gray but stated as Tobago by Boulenger 1885. Distribution. Known only from Tobago and Little Tobago.

Size: 43−48 mm SVL, tail 47% of SVL, hatchlings 19−23 mm SVL. Identification: A small brightly colored lizard with a cylindrical body and tail; male’s head yellow with red-brown stripes, dorsum cinnamon brown with large blue ocelli bordered with black on the shoulder, the ocelli may be present in one or two pairs on each side of the body; females less colorful, faint vertebral stripe; lamellae on fourth toe 25−26. Snout pointed from above, round in profile; canthus rounded and indistinct; dorsum covered in small granular scales; ventrals larger than dorsal scales and imbricate. Similar species: The only other Gonatodes on Tobago is G. vittatus, a species with a vertebral stripe in both sexes; the blue ocelli on the shoulder will readily separate it from G. ceciliae (found only in Trinidad and the Bocas) as will the 25−26 lamellae on the fourth toe (ceciliae has 18-20). Distribution: Tobago and Little Tobago Island. Reports of it on other islands (Trinidad and the Isla de Margarita) are the result of confusing it with other species. Habitat: Primary and secondary forests; on trunks of large trees growing near streams; deserted buildings; on Little Tobago common in stands of the palm Coccothrinax australis. It can also be found in trash piles that are wet and shaded. Natural History: Like other Gonatodes this species appears to be a diurnal, ambush predator. Males may be territorial and defend an area inhabited by one or more females. Diet includes insects and land snails. Communal nests containing more than 30 eggs under bark have been reported. Clutch size is a single egg.

Literature

Boulenger, G.A. 1885. Catalogue of the Lizards in the British Museum (Nat. Hist.) I. Geckonidae, Eublepharidae, Uroplatidae, Pygopodidae, Agamidae. London: 450 pp. 

Gray, J. E. 1831. A synopsis of the species of Class Reptilia. In: Griffith, E & E. Pidgeon: The animal kingdom arranged in conformity with its organisation by the Baron Cuvier with additional descriptions of all the species hither named, and of many before noticed Whittaker, Treacher and Co., London: 481 + 110 pp. [1830].

Ghost Anole, Anolis cf. lemurinus (Family Dactyloidae)

Boulenger (1885, 2:88) reported Anolis biporcatus from Trinidad based upon a British Museum specimen received from a Mr. C. Taylor in 1863. Werner (1900) listed this specimen as being from Port of Spain. Mole and Urich (1894a) retained this species on Trinidad based upon Boulenger’s account. Barbour (1930c) considered Mole and Urich’s record to be based upon Anolis aeneus. Parker (1935b) stated some authors have accepted this as a valid record, but noted that no other specimens have been forthcoming, and the specimen is present in the British Museum is not A. aeneus, but that it is closely allied to, if not conspecific with A. biporcatus. Parker listed this species in a section titled “Species Probably Incorrectly Reported from Trinidad.” Subsequently, someone suggested it be cataloged as Anolis lemurinus. My examination confirms this specimen is conspecific with, or very close to, A. lemurinus, a species known from Veracruz, Mexico, southward to Colombia. It occurs on both the Caribbean and Pacific versants of Central America, Its presence on Trinidad seems unlikely in the absence of additional specimens. But it may have extended along the northern forests of South America to Trinidad in the past. Description: The single Trinidad specimen, BMNH 63.6.18.3, is a male, SVL 69 mm, tail 144 mm. Hind limbs are 26 mm, 38% of the SVL. It seems likely that a lizard with these habits would have been discovered on Trinidad if it was present, but there is nothing to indicate the locality data is in error, and it may represent a population extirpated by habitat alteration in the last century.

Barbour's Hexagonal Scaled Bachia, Bachia trinitatis (Family Gymnophthalmidae)

Bachia alleni Barbour 1914:315
Bachia alleni — Mertens 1972.
Bachia heteropa alleni Dixon, 1973:32.
Bachia heteropus alleni Schwartz and Thomas 1975:109.
Scolecosaurus trinitatis Barbour 1914
Bachia alleni trinitatis — Donoso-Barros 1968

Dixon (1973) considered populations in northern Venezuela, Trinidad, Tobago, Gre­nada and the Grenadines Bachia heteropa despite dramatic variation in numerous morphological traits: 5–12 longitudinal rows of hexagonal, imbricate, smooth scales on the dorsum; 16–22 longitudinal rows of quadrangular, juxtaposed, lateral and ventral scales; 24 –31 scale rows around mid-body, 24–36 transverse ventral rows, some have prefrontal scales some do not. Perhaps most telling was the number of digits. Bachia heteropa could have two, three, or four toes on each hind foot and the number of digits is geographically concordant. Dixon positioned Scoleocosaurus trinitatis Barbour, S. alleni Barbour, B. lineata Boulenger, B. marcelae Donoso-Barrios and Garrido, as subspecies of B. heteropa. Most recently Rivas et al. (2012) wrote, “Bachia heteropa is a polytypic species composed of five subspecies, four of which are present in Venezuela.” The literature on Bachia heteropa was summarized by John et al. (2012) they followed Dixon’s (1973) arrangement of subspecies and noted B. anomala Roux, placed in the synonymy of B. lineata by Burt and Burt (1933), may be a valid species as noted by Shreve (1947).


Above. Bachia trinitatis from Tobago.

Bachia heteropa (sensu Dixon 1973) is composed of two morphological groups, species with prefrontal scales (mostly island species) and species without prefrontal scales (mostly mainland species). The mainland species Dixon synonymized under B. heteropa Ruthven are B. lineata Boulenger, B. anomala Roux, and B. marcelae Donoso-Barros and Garrido. Morphologically the mainland and island groups are readily distinguished. Mainland species usually have no prefrontals, two or three supraocular scales (as opposed to four in island species), two or three toes on the feet (as opposed to four in eastern Caribbean species); and quadrangular scales on the tail (as opposed to hexagonal tail scales in the island species).

Given the molecular evidence (Kohlsdorf & Wagner 2006; Kohlsdorf et al, 2010) Bachia heteropa (sensu Dixon, 1973) is polyphyletic.

Bachia trinitatus from Tobnago. 

Bachia alleni is found in Grenada, the Grenadines. Bachia trinitatis occurs on Trinidad, Tobago, Little Tobago, and in the Bocas. It inhabits the leaf litter and moves using a side to side motion of its body and tail.

Barbour T. 1914. A Contribution to the Zoögeography of the West Indies, with Especial Reference to Amphibians and Reptiles. Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 44 (2): 205-359

Barbour T. 1933. Notes on Scolecosaurus. Copeia 1933 (2): 74-77.

Dixon, J.R. (1973) A systematic review of the teiid lizards, genus Bachia, with remarks on Heterodactylus and Anotosaura. Miscellaneous Publications of the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History, 57, 1–47.

John, R.R., Bentz, E.J., Rivera Rodriguez, M.J., Bauer, A.M., & Powell, R. (2012) Bachia heteropa (Lichtenstein and von Martens). Earless Worm Lizard. Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles, 894:1–9.

Chacachacare Shiny Lizard, Gymnophthalmus sp. (Family Gymnophthalmidae)

Size: 40 mm SVL, tail about 1.7x SVL. The dorsum is shiny bronze-brown with pale dorsolateral lines extending from the snout to base of the tail. Lateral scales only slightly smaller than dorsals. Ventral scales 23–27. G. underwoodii has 21–24 ventrals, and a dorsolateral stripe that fades at mid body. G. sp. is a bisexual species.  Both species of Gymnophthalmus have well developed limbs with four fingers and five toes. Both species of skinks have imbricate, cycloid scales and well developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Distribution: In the broadest sense this group of cryptic species ranges from Mexico through Central America into Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Brazil.  Habitat: Inhabits open, sunny areas on lawns and at the forest edge, seems to prefer habitats without leaves. Most often seen in bright sunlight. Biology. Diurnal. Diet has not been studied, but it most likely feeds on insects and other arthropods.  Reproduction: Both sexes present in the population. Gymnophthalmus contains a cluster of cryptic species, species that look similar to each other but are genetically distinct. Two of these species are known from Trinidad, Tobago, and their satellites. Gymnophthalmus sp. is widespread in Venezuela, as well as Chacachacare Island in the Bocas. A second species, G. cryptus occurs in western Venezuela and the middle Rio Orinoco drainage system. And, a third species, G. underwoodii occurs in Trinidad, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, northern Brazil, and the West Indies as far north as Antigua. Gymnophthalmus cryptus is not morphologically distinct from G. speciosus, but they are genetically distinct. The third species G. underwoodii is an asexual clone formed by the hybridization of G. cryptus and G. sp. The clone species probably originated in the middle Orinoco drainage and dispersed downstream during flooding. It was then able to colonize Trinidad and the islands to the north as well as coastal Guyana. 

Quadrangular Scaled Bachia, Bachia cf. flavescens (Family Gymnophthalmidae)

This lizard is known from four specimens from Tobago. It, or something like it, is also known from Guyana and it is probably a complex of species known as Bachia flavescens. It can be distinguished from the other Bachia in T&T by its quadrangular scales on the dorsum, The other Bachia have hexagonal scales on the dorsum. This lizard also differs from Bachia trinitatis in its ability to use its tail as a spring to propel its body upward. 

Chacachacare Shiny Lizard, Gymnophthalmus sp. (Family Gymnophthalmidae)

Size: 40 mm SVL, tail about 1.7x SVL. The dorsum is shiny bronze-brown with pale dorsolateral lines extending from the snout to base of the tail. Lateral scales only slightly smaller than dorsals. Ventral scales 23–27. G. underwoodii has 21–24 ventrals, and a dorsolateral stripe that fades at mid body. G. sp. is a bisexual species.  Both species of Gymnophthalmus have well developed limbs with four fingers and five toes. Both species of skinks have imbricate, cycloid scales and well developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Distribution: In the broadest sense this group of cryptic species ranges from Mexico through Central America into Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Brazil.  Habitat: Inhabits open, sunny areas on lawns and at the forest edge, seems to prefer habitats without leaves. Most often seen in bright sunlight. Biology. Diurnal. Diet has not been studied, but it most likely feeds on insects and other arthropods.  Reproduction: Both sexes present in the population. Gymnophthalmus contains a cluster of cryptic species, species that look similar to each other but are genetically distinct. Two of these species are known from Trinidad, Tobago, and their satellites. Gymnophthalmus speciosus (or lizards that look like it) is widespread in Venezuela, as well as Chacachacare Island in the Bocas. A second species, G. cryptus occurs in western Venezuela and the middle Rio Orinoco drainage system. And, a third species, G. underwoodii occurs in Trinidad, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, northern Brazil, and the West Indies as far north as Antigua. Gymnophthalmus cryptus is not morphologically distinct from G. sp., but they are genetically distinct. The third species G. underwoodii is an asexual clone formed by the hybridization of G. cryptus and G. sp. The clone species probably originated in the middle Orinoco drainage and dispersed downstream during flooding. It was then able to colonize Trinidad and the islands to the north as well as coastal Guyana. 

Yellow-tailed Gecko, Gonatodes albogularis (Family Sphaerodactylidae)

The status of this lizard on Trinidad and Tobago is uncertain. There are museum specimens from both islands. It seems likely that these are misidentified Gonatodes humeralis. The specimens are either eggs or hatchlings and the only way to separate the two species is the number of lamellae on the fourth toe. The ranges for both species are continuous so it is likely the counts are wrong or the actual range of the number of lamellae overlap.