Reviews for the Trinidad and Tobago Herpetofauna Field Guide

In 1997, John Murphy's book covered an account of the amphibians and reptiles of Trinidad and Tobago; the only one at the time covering both amphibians and reptiles of the country. Two decades later, this first field guide edition to the herpetofauna of the country was published which provides an update on its predecessor. It features updated information on species, along with name changes and some new species. The book was published by the Trinidad and Tobago Field Naturalists' Club (Founded 1891) and can be bought locally in most leading bookstores as well as internationally from the club's website, see link here.  To date, international orders for the field guide have come from the US, UK, Germany, France, Israel, Sweden, and Guadeloupe.

Two international reviews have come out for the book this year. One in The Herpetological Bulletin, and one in Herpetological Review. The following are some direct comments from the reviews:

Suzanne Simpson, Hadlow College, Hadlow, Tonbridge, Kent, TN11 0AL, UK.

Herpetological Bulletin 144, 2018: 34-35.

"This field guide is a user-friendly, detailed, step-by-step guide to the herpetofauna of Trinidad and Tobago. It breaks down into multiple sections with an easy to use index at the back for readers who want to just look at a few species. Anyone interested in amphibians and reptiles could pick up this book and enjoy the pictures and information. At the price it is excellent value for money."

Robert Powell, Department of Biology, Avila University, Kansas City, Missouri 64145, USA

Herpetological Review 2018, 49(3) 561-563.

"This is an outstanding, educational, and entertaining overview of a complex insular herpetofauna. Sufficiently detailed and documented to meet the needs of professionals but adequately straight-forward and not too technical to serve readers using it solely as a means to identify species they encounter during a visit to the islands. This excellent guide is a must for the libraries of herpetologists with an interest in insular herpetofauna and for the backpacks of any naturalist fortunate enough to experience Trinidad and Tobago."

Cost to order online is $42. USD ($290. TTD) which includes the cost of postage. For further information on how you can order a copy, please email admin@ttfnc.org. For local purchases, contact the club for additional information.

Citation for the Field guide:

Murphy, J.C., Downie, J.R., Smith, J.M., Livingstone, S.R., Mohammed, R.S., Auguste, R.J., Lehtinen, R.M., Eyre, M., Sewlal, J.N., Noriega, N., Casper, G.S., Anton, T., Thomas, R.A., Rutherford, M.G., Braswell, A.L., and Jowers, M.J. 2018. A field guide to the amphibians and reptiles of Trinidad and Tobago.  Trinidad and Tobago Field Naturalists’ Club. 336 pp.

Herpetofauna results from the Toco Bioblitz

Bioblitz results. Photo by Renoir Auguste

The seventh annual Bioblitz of Trinidad and Tobago came and went. The amphibian and reptile group which consisted of two main groups; one from the Trinidad and Tobago Field Naturalists' Club and the other by Serpentarium observed 37 species over the weekend. These 37 species consisted of 13 species of amphibians, 11 lizards, 11 snakes, one crocodilian and one sea turtle.

Although we wished that all 37 observations were of herpetofauna living in the wild, this was not the case. The one sea turtle observed was a green sea turtle carcass with shell on nearby beach. With some parts of the turtle still in the shell, it was uncertain as to what may have caused its demise. It would be a shame if this was an act of poaching by people in the area. Sea turtles are still poached in Trinidad and Tobago despite year-long legal protection. The Serpentarium also observed a roadkill snake (Leptophis  coeruleodorsus).

Perhaps the most notable amphibian sighting was that of the narrow-mouth frog Elachistocleis sp. These explosive breeders are difficult to spot unless they are out calling in abundance, but we managed to spot one not too far from the coastline in secondary forest type vegetation.

Elachistocleis sp. Photo by Rainer Deo

Although we did not spot any rare or elusive reptiles, seeing four Bothrops along a single trail at Cumana on the same night was very notable. One local in the area did mention to us that there are many "Mapepire Balsains" (the local common name for Bothrops) along the trail, and he did not exaggerate. The four individuals were all observed along the side of the trail and were all estimated to be about two to four feet (60 to 120 cm) long. Considering we saw four, there is a great likelihood that there are more individuals in the area nearby.

Special thanks to all the volunteers that came out and especially Rainer Deo for the photos. The full list of species observed at the Bioblitz will be made available in the final report and will be shared here when it is compiled and completed.

Bothrops sp. Photo by Rainer Deo

Trinidad and Tobago's 7th annual Bioblitz goes to Toco in 2018

Bioblitz is a 24 hour event where scientists, naturalists and members of the public all come together to collect, identify and record as many species of fungi, plant and animal in a certain area. It is an opportunity for the public to see scientists at work and allows scientists to share their knowledge with others. It can also promote an area and showcase the biodiversity to be found there. 

This year will be the seventh edition and the chosen location is Toco to take place on 17-18 November. Toco is located in north east Trinidad and represents a portion of the island that has not been covered yet for the 24 hour event. It represents an area that covers a portion of the Northern Range forest as well as coastal ecosystems. The base camp will be the Toco Regional Complex. The main organizers for the Bioblitz are once again the Trinidad and Tobago Field Naturalists' Club in collaboration with The University of the West Indies Zoology Museum (UWIZM). This year as in past editions, it is sponsored by First Citizens. 

Given that there are proposed works to build a port in the area, these surveys offer a baseline of the biodiversity that are likely to be impacted by the work. What species of reptiles and amphibians are likely to be found in the area and how many? Perhaps something rare or new? Stay tuned to find out next week!

Simla's Reptiles and Amphibians

Photo by Renoir Auguste

The William Beebe Research Station, also known as Simla is known by many scientists that have visited Trinidad. It is located in the Arima Valley and surrounded by tropical forests: ideal for researchers wanting to get a feel of the environment. However, over recent years the nearby quarry has altered the habitat. One wonders what kind of effect this may have on the wildlife, including the local herpetofauna?

Tantilla melanocephala. Photo by Rainer Deo

In October 2018 the Trinidad and Tobago Field Naturalists' Club's Herpetology Group, lead by current president undertook a trip to see what amphibian and reptile species they can find. Searches took place in the afternoon from 2:30 pm to 3:30 pm and then again at night from 6 pm to 9 pm. Within those 4 hours, the group collectively observed 17 herpetofauna species, including 3 snake species (Bothrops sp, Tantilla melanocephala, and Corallus ruschenbergerii), 6 lizard species (Hemidactylus mabouia, Thecadactylus rapicauda, Gonatodes vittatus, G. ceciliae, Anolis planiceps, and Plica caribeana), and 8 amphibian species (Mannophryne trinitatis, Rhinella marina, Pristimantis urichi, Flectonotus fitzgeraldi, Boana xerophylla, Leptodactylus validus, Engystomops pustulosus, Phyllomedusa trinitatis).

Thecadactylus rapicauda. Photo by Rainer Deo

It was a bit surprising given the warm afternoon and relatively dry conditions at night to see that many species. Although most of these may be considered generalist type species, the habitat specialists (Pristimantis urichi and Flectonotus fitzgeraldi) were visually and audibly observed. This may suggest that the forest at and around Simla does offer suitable habitat for these species, for now. It would be interesting to regularly keep track of the diversity of herpetofauna at Simla.

Rhinella marina (background) and Pristimantis urichi (foreground) at Simla. Photo by Rainer Deo

Lack of chytrid disease in Tobago's frogs

Chytridiomycosis has caused declines in multiple amphibian species across the world. The fungal infection has been detected in frogs in Tobago, specifically the endemic Aromobatidae stream frog Mannophryne olmonae (Alemu et al. 2008). However, there were no signs of clinical mortality.

A follow up study was conducted on six species of frogs (Leptodactylus validus, Engystomops pustulosus, Boana xerophylla, Pristimantis charlottevillensis, Hyalinobatrachium orientale tobagoense, and Mannophryne olmonae) from northeast Tobago in 2016 by Thomson et al. 2018 to assess the presence of the chytrid fungus. Based on their data of 176 samples, no chytrid was detected. According to the authors, their findings appear to indicate that the infection may have died out or is at very low levels. At least, for the species sampled and those in the northeast of the island.

Boana xerophylla from Tobago (Photo by: Renoir Auguste)

Alemu,J.B., Cazabon, M.N.E, Dempewolf, L., Hailey, A., Lehtinen, R.M., Mannette, R.P., Naranjit, K.T. and Roach, A.C.J. 2008. Presence of the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in populations of the Critically Endangered frog Mannophryne olmonae in Tobago, West Indies. Ecohealth, 5:34-39.

Thomson, R., Hoskisson, P.A., Brozio, S., Downie, J.R. 2018. Apparent lack of chytrid infection in northeast Tobago's frogs. Living World, Journal of the Trinidad and Tobago Field Naturalists' Club, 2018: 82-86.

Another Anolis lizard introduced to Trinidad

Anolis cristatellus (Photo by Kester Dass)

As of 2018, there have been eight species of Anolis lizards reported for Trinidad and Tobago (Murphy et al. 2018). Most of these (6/8) have been introduced from other Caribbean islands. It is uncertain as to exactly how these non-native Anolis lizards came into the country. A recent report by Auguste et al. 2018 now adds a ninth Anolis lizard to the country: Anolis cristatellus, the Puerto Rican Crested Anole. Given the recent spread of other introduced Anolis lizards across Trinidad and Tobago, it will be important to keep track of the distribution of the Puerto Rican Crested Anole as it has the potential to compete with and displace native Anolis species.

Auguste, RJ, Dass K, Baldeo, D. 2018. Discovery of the Puerto Rican Crested Anole, Anolis cristatellus Dumeril and Bibron, on Trinidad. Caribbean Herpetology 63: 1-2. DOI: 10.311611/ch63

Murphy, J.C., Downie, J.R., Smith, J.M., Livingstone, S.R., Mohammed, R.S., Auguste, R.J., Lehtinen, R.M., Eyre, M., Sewlal, J.N., Noriega, N., Casper, G.S., Anton, T., Thomas, R.A., Rutherford, M.G., Braswell, A.L., and Jowers, M.J. 2018. A field guide to the amphibians and reptiles of Trinidad and Tobago.  Trinidad and Tobago Field Naturalists’ Club. 336 pp.

Additional evidence for Phyllomedusa trinitatus being distinct from P. tarsius

Phyllomedusa trinitatis. JCM

The Tarsier Leaf Frog (family Phyllomedusidae), was described as Pithecopus tarsius by Cope in 1868. It is found in Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela, and possibly Bolivia and Guyana. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical swamps, intermittent freshwater marshes, and heavily degraded former forest.

Mertens (1926) described Phyllomedusa trinitatis from Port of Spain, Trinidad and Phyllomedusa venusta was described by Duellman and Trueb (1967) from Darién Province, Panamá.

Barrio-Amorós (2009) doubted the distinctiveness of Phyllomedusa venusta from P. trinitatis, and also reidentified specimens identified as Phyllomedusa tarsius from along the Guyana border as P. trinitatis. This suggests  Phyllomedusa trinitatis likely extends into Guyana, and the records of Phyllomedusa tarsius from Guyana need re-examination.

A forthcoming paper by Mechkarska et al. (2018) examined peptidomic analysis of norepinephrine-stimulated skin secretions from the Trinidadian Leaf Frog and found 26 host-defense peptides. The primary structures of the peptides support the claim that P. trinitatis and P. tarsius are very closely related phylogenetically but are probably not conspecific as suggested by Duellman (1974).

Left: Phyllomedusa tarsius by Jean-Marc Hero. Right Phyllomeusa venusta
by Mauricio Rivera Correa

References

Barrio-Amorós CL. 2009. Distribución y aspectos de la historia natural de las ranas lémur (Hylidae: Phyllomedusinae) en Venezuela. Memoria de la Fundación La Salle de Ciencias Naturales. Caracas 171: 19–46.

Cope ED. 1868. An examination of the Reptilia and Batrachia obtained by the Orton Expedition to Equador and the Upper Amazon, with notes on other species. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 20:96–140.

Duellman WE. 1974. Taxonomic notes on Phyllomedusa (Anura: Hylidae) from the upper Amazon basin. Herpetologica  1:105-12.

Duellman WE, Trueb L. 1967. Two new species of tree frogs (genus Phyllomedusa) from Panamá. Copeia 1967:125–131.

Mechkarska M, Coquet L, Leprince J, Auguste RJ, Jouenne T, Mangoni ML, Conlon JM. 2018. Peptidomic analysis of the host-defense peptides in skin secretions of the Trinidadian leaf frog Phyllomedusa trinitatis (Phyllomedusidae). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part D: Genomics and Proteomics. 2018 Dec 1;28:72-9.

Mertens R. 1926. Herpetologischen Mitteilungen VIII–XV. Senckenbergiana Biologica 8: 137–155.

Tadpoles of the Tobago Glass Frog

A metamorph of the Tobago Glass Frog.

The Tobago glass frog, Hyalinobatrachium orientale tobagoense is endemic to the island of Tobago. They reproduce by laying a clutch of gelatinous eggs on the underside of broad leaves overhanging streams, a mode of reproduction which is characteristic of all Hyalinobatrachium. The embryos develop on the leaf until hatching when they drop into the stream below where they develop further, eventually emerging as metamorphs.

Previous authors have reported on embryonic development, hatching, and tadpole growth and morphology in this frog. The tads initially lacking pigmentation, but with age develop pigment over much of the body, darker on the dorsal side, but lacking on the tail fins and ventral body. The tadpoles’ eyes are small and dorsally oriented.  They have very long tails, 64% of total length. In the lab, growth, is very slow. After six weeks, tadpoles had tripled in mass, increased in length by a little under 40%, but were still at Gosner stage 25, with no sign of limb buds. Previous authors have reported very slow growth and development in two glass frog species which took more than  200 days to reach metamorphosis.

Tadpoles hide in sediment and among rocks, gravel, and fallen leaves, and escape with bursts of fast swimming when disturbed. Given their secretive nature, it is not surprising that the behavior of these tadpoles is poorly known.

In a recent paper, Byrne et al. (2018) collected egg clutches of the Tobago Glass Frog and allowed them to hatch into tanks of native stream water.  Observations were made through a series of tests for substrate preference (gravel, rocks or leaves), shelter or open water preference, and surfacing behavior under different depths and turbulence levels. Tests found that tadpoles showed a preference for stream substrates over plastic tank floor, with the highest percentage of tadpoles found in gravel. Tadpoles preferred sheltered areas of the tank and surfaced significantly less when water was turbulent, with depth having no significant effect on surfacing behavior.

Byrne I, Judge C, Downie JR. 2018. The behaviour of recently hatched Tobago glass frog tadpoles. Herpetological Bulletin. 2018 Jun 1(144).

Brazilian Bent-toed Gecko, Gymnodactylus geckoides Spix

Bent-toed Gecko, Gymnodactylus geckoides is listed here on the basis of a single museum specimen. It is not likely part of the current fauna. If this genus is present on Trinidad, it can be identified by the presence of free fingers that are not expanded; the fingers have wide, undivided sub-digital lamellae; the distal phalanges are elevated above the basal ones; the nail or claw is placed between two scales with the ventral scale indented; straight, vertical pupils and dorsal scales are a mixture of granules and tubercles. This lizard is otherwise known from Brazil; its presence on Trinidad is problematic.

The only known specimen (FMNH 177679) of Gymnodactylus gekkoides supposedly collected in Trinidad's Arima Valley in 1962 by Edward Taylor. 

Anolis sagrei (Duméril and Bibron, 1837) Introduced

Anolis sagrei has apparently been introduced into Port-of-Spain, Trinidad

A Brown Anole, Anolis sagrei, photographed in southern Florida. JCM

Size. Males to 70 mm, females 48 mm; hatchlings 16 mm SVL. Smallest sexually mature male 35 mm, female 34 mm.

Identification. Brown to gray, with white or yellow patterning on the back. Dewlap orange or red with a white or yellow edge. Scales between the supraorbitals are variable ranging from none to several; scales separate the interparietal and supraorbital from the semicircles scales. Head scales keeled; five postrostrals; two postmentals. Mid dorsum has six rows of slightly enlarged scales; tail laterally compressed and may have a slight crest; keeled ventral scales that are pointed posteriorly.
Similar species. All Trinidad and Tobago anoles have cycloid (rounded) ventral scales with the exception of Anolis planiceps. Anolis sagrei has the subocular scales in contact with the upper labials. Anolis planiceps has the subocular scales and the upper labials separated by a row of scales. Anolis tigrinus has no enlarged mid-dorsal scales. Polychrus has femoral pores but all anoles lack them.

Distribution. This species has five currently recognized subspecies. Which one was introduced on Trinidad is unknown. The species is widespread in the Lesser Antilles and has been introduced into the USA (California, Florida, Texas, and Hawaii), Mexico, Belize, Aruba, and Taiwan. In Trinidad it is known only from the heart of Port of Spain, suggesting it may have arrived with ornamental plants.

Habitat. A ground dweller but will climb into low vegetation; this species thrives in almost all man-made habitats and they are abundant in suburban and urban environments.


Biology. Diurnal. Basks and forages on the ground and in vegetation. The diet includes insects, spiders, and other invertebrates (mites, isopods, gastropods). Females lay a single egg in moist soil or rotten wood at about 14-day intervals.

Guyana Dawn Blind Snake, Typhlophis squamosus Schlegel 1839

Typhlophis squamosus Schlegel 1839 in Error

Guyana Dawn Blind Snake, Typhlophis squamosus, has been reported in the literature as present in Trinidad. We have not been able to document its presence with a specimen. However, this has not stopped some authors from applying the common name “Trinidad Blind Snake” and even Wikipedia claims it is on Trinidad. We would like to see the evidence. Dorsal scales in 24 rows around mid-body, counted longitudinally the dorsals number 340−377; upper labials 4, lower labials 3; nostrils separated from the rostral by a single scale; tail ends in a sharply pointed scale. The dorsum and venter are dark brown, the head is pinkish cream, and the tail tip is brown. The known distribution is in Guyana and Brazil.

Red Whipsnake, Chironous scurrulus In Error

Red Whipsnake, Chironous scurrulus (Wagler). We have previously discussed this species and the evidence that suggests it is not part of the Trinidad fauna. Go to this post

Klauber's Threadsnake, Epictia tenella (Klauber, 1939)

Klauber's Threadsnake, Epictia tenella (Klauber, 1939)

Previously known as Leptotyphlops albifrons.

Size. 275 mm TL, tail very short about 6–7% of total length.

Identification. A small, silvery, striped snake with a yellow face and yellow tail; each scale row has a dark stripe. Head no wider than neck; rostral visible from above; nasals extend to border of mouth and separate two labials; no loreal; ocular scale contains a relatively large eye that nearly touches the anterior edge of the scale; two upper labials, the first upper labial contacts the supraocular; four lower labials; 219–229 ventrals; 15–20 subcaudals; 14 rows of smooth dorsal scales; tail ends in sharp spine; ventrals about as wide as dorsals.

Similar species. The supraocular and first labial in contact, and a pentagonal-shaped ocular scale separates it from all other Trinidad snakes.

Distribution. Epictia tenella occurs on Trinidad, Venezuela, and northern Brazil. Habitat. A fossorial snake found in urban gardens, savanna, and forest. It climbs on rock walls and tree trunks to reach food sources but is most often found under rocks, logs, and in leaf litter near ant and termite nests.
Biology. Active any time of day. This is an ant and termite specialists which locates colonies by following the chemical trails laid down by the social insects. This is the most frequently encountered species of Trinidad scolecophidian snakes.

Chacachacare Thread Snake, Epictia cf. fallax

Chacachacare Thread Snake
Epictia cf. fallax

Previously known as Leptotyphlops goudotii

Size. 160 mm in total length.

Identification. An Epictia that is extremely gracile, body shape (total length/diameter at mid-body) is 72.7 mm. The tail is 4.3% of the total length. The rostral scale extends between the eyes.

Similar Species.  Most easily confused with Klauber’s Threadsnake which has a body shape that is 51–62. and has a supraocular longer than frontal. The interoccipital scale s distinct from dorsals (it is not in E. tenella).  The body shape, combined with a tail that is 4.3% of the total length, and a rostral scale that extends between the eyes separate this snake from all other Epictia found in northern South America.

Distribution. Known only from Chacachacare Island.

Neotropical Blind Snake, Amerotyphlops cf brongersmianus

Neotropical Blind Snake, Amerotyphlops cf brongersmianus 


Size. 325 mm TL, tail about 2.1% SVL.
Identification. Cigar-shaped body and a uniform brown colour distinguish it from A. trinitatis, which has a striped pattern with yellow blotches at each end. Three light spots on the head, a large central spot and a smaller one on each side; eleven dorsal scale rows with yellow-brown or red-brown pigment, snout may be streaked with dark brown that forms fan-shaped spots; nine ventral scale rows are yellow or pink. Rostral visible from above; nasals large and semi-divided; four upper labials; eyes distinct but under ocular shields; scales around body number 20, reduce to 19 or 18 posteriorly; dorsal scales from rostral to tail-spine range from 195 to 287 (average 233.1). Trinidad population and some mainland populations to south and east are characterized by low numbers of dorsals; subcaudals 8-14 (average 10.6); tail wider than long, ending in a conical spine.

Similar species. The two species of Epictia have 14 rows of scales around the body, and the Helminthophis has 18 rows of scales around the body; it can be readily distinguished from Amerotyphlops trinitatis by its uniform brown dorsal pattern; A trinitatus is striped.
Distribution. On Trinidad it is known only from Tucker Valley and Aripo Savanna. Elsewhere, it may be present on the Guiana Shield. It is likely this widespread species is composed of multiple cryptic taxa.

Habitat. Rainforest leaf litter and soil.

Biology. Probably nocturnal, very secretive. Diet: Probably includes ants and termites.  Some specimens of Amphisbaena gracilis and A. brongersmianus were found among the leaves of a Moriche palm (Mauritia flexuosa) in a flooded morichal in the Orinoco Delta. These specimens tried to hide under dry leaves and, if this was not possible, they jumped directly into the water.

Trinidad Blindsnakes, Amerotyphlops trinitatus Richmnond

Trinidad Blindsnakes, Amerotyphlops trinitatus Richmnond

Size. 237 mm SVL, total length 240 mm. Tail about 1.2% of SVL.

Note similarity between head and tail.

Identification. Rostral visible from above; snout projects over the mouth; nasals divided; no loreal; a single small preocular contacts upper labials 2–3; four upper labials; third and fourth labials similar in size, both taller than long; ocular scale small; dorsal scales from rostral to tail-spine number 388–389; subcaudals in 10 rows; 20 scale rows around mid-body; dorsal pattern of 11–13 dark brown stripes; the yellow head and tail spots make it difficult to distinguish one end from the other.

Similar Species: Epictia tenella has 14 scales around the body. Ameroyphlops cf. brongersmianus has a larger diameter body, the pattern is uniform, not striped, and it has a complete nasal cleft. The undescribed anomalepidid also has a yellow-tipped head and tail, but has 18 scale rows at mid-body.
Distribution. Trinidad and Tobago.

Habitat. A forest and forest-edge species likely to be found in rotting logs, leaf litter, and loose soil. This species has been listed as critically endangered because many of its known locations are under or near development projects. However, it has been recently found in the Main Ridge Forest Reserve on Tobago. It is associated with Three-lined Snake and Hex-scaled Bachia in ant and termites nest associated with decomposing logs and vegetation.

Pair in copula.

Biology. Active any time of day. The diet includes ants and termites. We observed copulation in June and one female contained seven or eight eggs.

Tiger Rat Snake, Spilotes pullatus

Other common names: Tigre, El Tigre.

Size. Adult males larger than females. Average size is about 1,700 mm SVL, 2,311 mm TL, may exceed 3.6 m; hatchlings average 376 mm SVL; tail about 32% of SVL.

A Tobago specimen. JCM

Identification. A large black and yellow snake with 16 or 18 rows of keeled dorsal scales that are reduced to 10 rows posteriorly. Yellow or white colouration is restricted to the anterior portion of the body. Tobago specimens tend to be darker than Trinidad and mainland specimens. Rostral visible from above; nasals semi-divided or divided; loreal single; one or two preocular; one or two postoculars;  six to eight upper labials, six to eight lower labials; ventrals 209−226; single cloacal plate; divided subcaudals 116−129; dorsal scales smooth in first two rows, other rows keeled. 

Similar species. Perhaps most easily confused with Spilotes sulphureus which has 21 dorsal scale rows and much more yellow in the dorsal pattern. Clelia is a solid blue-black as an adult with 19 scale rows at mid-body and a much shorter tail (62−76 subcaudals).

Distribution. Widespread, ranging from Mexico southward to Argentina; present on both Trinidad and Tobago. Many more specimens of this snake have been found on Tobago than on Trinidad. Tobago specimens occur from the highest forests down to littoral forests adjacent to the beaches. A specimen recently found at Cedros, Trinidad suggests the species is found island wide.
Habitat. Forested and forest-edge environments. It is arboreal but will come to the ground and use open habitats.

Biology. Diurnal. The diet includes birds and their eggs, but small mammals including bats, rodents, and the invasive mongoose are killed by constriction. The diet suggests the Tiger Rat Snake is an active forager and often a nest predator.

Male Spilotes pullatus engage in ritualized combat, a behaviour that has been reported in many other snake species. This behaviour may be used to maintain a territory or settle a dispute over access to a female. The male snakes partially entwine their bodies during combat and attempt to keep the head upright and above the other male. During the combat ritual, the snakes use their tails to restrain their opponent by preventing the opponent from moving forward. Biting during combat has not been observed in this species.  The bouts may last for more than an hour. Reproduction: Seasonal reproduction is likely at higher and lower latitudes, with year-round reproduction likely at middle latitudes. Egg-laying has been reported in early summer, hatchlings found in early July. Clutch sizes of 5-11 eggs reported.

Defensive behaviour includes inflating the forebody with the trachea, loud hissing, and tail vibration. The bottom photo in plate 145 shows the defensive behaviour  that expands the forebody and exposes the skin between the scales. This behaviour is shared with the Yellow-bellied Puffing Snake. The unusual behaviour of kinking or bending the

Erythrolamprus sp Tobago

Previously known as Liophis reginae ssp.

Size. 362 mm SVL, 120 mm tail; tail 33.1% SVL.

Identification. Rostral visible from above; eight upper labials; 9−10 lower labials; fourth and fifth upper labials enter the orbit; two primary and one secondary temporals; one preocular; two postoculars; a divided anal plate. Dorsal scales are in 17 rows at mid-body and reduced to 15 posteriorly; 143-146 ventrals; 66-77 subcaudals; upper labials are eight or nine, and there are eleven lower labials. The posterior ventral surface has some light mottling.

Distribution. This undescribed species is known from northeastern Tobago, and likely to be endemic. However, its eventual discovery in Venezuela cannot be ruled out. It is currently known from five specimens. Habitat. Primary and old-growth secondary forest. One specimen was found on a steep slope above a stream.

Biology. Diurnal. It is likely to be closely related to E. zweifeli and E. reginae from the Guiana Shield and have habits similar to those two species.

Barbados Anole, Anolis extremus (Family Dactyloidae)

Anolis roquet var. extremus Garman 1887: 35

Anolis extremus — Schwartz & Henderson 1991: 262

Distribution. The Barbados anole (Anolis extremus) is native to Barbados, but introduced to Saint Lucia and Bermuda, Trinidad and Huevos I. It does not appear to have survived the introductions on  Huevos. However, it is present on the grounds of Piarco Airport.

Diagnosis. Males have pale lavender to blue-gray heads, with blue eyelids. Their body is a deep green with dark markings and occasionally white spots, and ventral surfaces are yellow. Females are smaller and duller in color and may have a mid-dorsal stripe. Photo by Postdif.

Creer, D. A., Queiroz K., Jackman TR, Losos JB, Larson A. 2001. Systematics of the Anolis roquet series of the southern Lesser Antilles. Journal of Herpetology 35 (3): 428-441

Garman, S. 1887. On West Indian reptiles. Iguanidae. Bull. Essex Inst. 19: 25-50.

Lazell, J.D. 1972. The anoles (Sauria: Iguanidae) of the Lesser Antilles. Bull. Mus. comp. Zool. Harvard 143 (1): 1-115.

Schwartz, A. & Henderson, R.W. 1991. Amphibians and Reptiles of the West Indies. University of Florida Press, Gainesville, 720 pp.

Diversity of Amphibians at the Aripo Savannas, Trinidad, WI

Leptodactylus fuscus

Information on amphibian diversity in Neotropical savannas and in protected areas in the Caribbean is lacking. We evaluated amphibian diversity and species composition in the Aripo Savannas Scientific Reserve in Trinidad, in relation to the two major habitat types, savanna, and marsh forest. Auguste and Hailey (2018) surveyed thirty 200-m-long transects were sampled visually and aurally in 4 periods (total 120 samples), with 10 transects in savanna, and 20 in marsh forest (10 along trails and 10 off trails), at night in the wet season from June to December 2015. We recorded 895 individuals representing 16 species, 11 genera, and 7 families, with greater counts and diversity of amphibians in marsh forest compared to savanna. The three species recorded in the savanna (Leptodactylus fuscus, Scinax ruber, and Rhinella beebei) were also found in marsh forest, with no separate savanna amphibian community. Audio detection was more effective at sampling most species, and there were greater counts along trails compared to transects off trails.

Auguste RJ, Hailey A. 2018. Diversity and Species Composition of Amphibians of the Aripo Savannas Scientific Reserve, Trinidad, West Indies. Journal of Herpetology. 52(1):86-93.